UNIT 10: ANCIENT GREECE

1.      THE ORIGINS OF THE GREEK WORLD

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Greek civilisation appeared in the Balkan peninsula, on islands in the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor, now Turkey. Its ancient name was Hellas, and its people were called hellenes. Ancient Greece was influenced by its natural environment:

- On mainland Greece, valleys were separated by mountain chains. There were many islands far from the continent. Independent states emerged in each valley and on each island.

- The sea: the Greeks were maritime people and traded with other people across the Mediterranean.

- The climate was dry. People lived from agriculture, animal grazing, and fishing.

THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT GREECE

The Greeks all had the same civilisation, although they lived in independent cities. They shared the same culture, religious beliefs, and language. We divide Greek history into three main periods:

- During the Archaic Age (8th –(to) 6th centuries BC), the Greek city states were established. Greece began to expand across the Mediterranean.

- The Classical Age (5th century BC) was a period of great cultural achievement. Athens and Sparta were the dominant city states.

- During the Hellenistic Age (4th –(to) 2nd centuries BC) Alexander the Great conquered the Persian empire. After his death, there were several Hellenistic kingdoms before they finally became part of the Roman empire.

PRE-HELLENIC CIVILISATIONS

There were several important pre-Hellenic civilisations before Greek civilisation appeared:

- Between 3000 and 1500 BC the Minoans were a prosperous maritime and trading civilisation on the island of Crete. They learned how to make and use bronze. They ruled many islands in the Aegean Sea.

- Between 1600 and 1200 BC the Mycenaeans controlled most of mainland Greece. Mycenaean society was led by a warrior aristocracy. According to Greek legends, these warriors fought the Trojan War.

- After 1200 BC the Dorians, who knew how to make and use iron, entered mainland Greece from the north. Many Greeks went to live on the coast of Asia Minor, now Turkey, where they founded cities.

- The period from 1200 BC until about 750 BC was called the Dark Age. People lived in small, isolated communities, and left few important archaeological remains.

2.       THE ARCHAIC AGE

THE POLIS

Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Dark Age settlements grew into independent city states, or poleis. The polis was formed of the main city and the farming land and forests around it. It had its own government, army, laws and currency. But all the poleis shared the same culture, religion and language. They also had in common:

- The agora, or main square, where political activity and trading took place.

- The acropolis, on high land above the city, where temples were located.

EARLY GOVERNMENT

Archaic city states were ruled by an oligarchy, which meant “government by the few”. The aristoi (or “best”) formed a privileged elite, or aristocracy. The aristoi were landowners and military leaders. There was frequent social disorder during the 7th and 6th centuries BC, and this led to political change. Tyrants, like Peisistratos, took power. There were other leaders, like Solon the lawmaker.

GREEK COLONISATION

Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, Greek expansion led to the creation of colonies across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. There were many new cities such as Syracuse, in Sicily, and Emporion on the Iberian peninsula. The causes of Greek colonisation were:

- Land was scarce, and it was held unequally.

- Population growth made it necessary to find new places for the extra people.

- Colonies created new trading possibilities.

The consequences of Greek colonisation were:

- Economic activity increased greatly in both city states and their colonies.

- Greek culture spread into new regions. Many people who traded with the Greeks were also influenced by their culture.

- Some social groups became wealthier. There were social changes, and democracy emerged in the poleis.

3.      THE CLASSICAL AGE

DEMOCRACY IN ATHENS

The city state of Athens led a military alliance called the Delian League. This played an important role in the military victory against the Persian empire in the Persian Wars (490 -(to) 478 BC). Under leaders like Pericles, Athens also had great political influence on other city states. Athens became a democracy, which meant “rule by the people”. In this system, adult male citizens participated in government. But women, metics, slaves and freed slaves were not considered citizens. Athenian democracy had the following institutions:

- The ekklesia was an assembly of all the citizens. They met to vote laws, decide foreign policy and elect magistrates.

- Magistrates were in charge of the law courts and religious ceremonies. The archons were the chief magistrates, and military leaders were called strategoi.

- The council, or boule, was formed of citizens, who were chosen by ballot. They coordinated the work of the magistrates and made sure that laws were followed.

- The heliaia was the supreme court. Its members were elected each year after a ballot among citizens.

SPARTA

Sparta was Athens’s great rival. It was an oligarchy, which meant “government by the few”. In Spartan society, citizens were trained to fight as warriors from an early age. The perioikoi were free craftsmen or traders, but they did not have political rights. Beneath them were the helots, who were like slaves. There were the following institutions:

- The state was ruled by two kings who held military and religious authority.

- The gerousia was a council formed by citizens who were aged over sixty. They were responsible for justice and drew up laws.

- The ephors, or magistrates, maintained order.

- The assembly of citizens had only very limited powers. It approved the gerousia’s decisions.

The rivalry between Sparta and Athens led to the Peloponnesian War (431 -(to) 404 BC), which ended with the defeat of Athens.

4.      ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

ECONOMY

- Agriculture was the main economic activity. It was based on the cultivation of wheat, olives and vines in the valleys. Fruit and vegetables were also grown.

- Livestock farming was important in the mountains. They kept sheep, goats, pigs, cows and horses.

- Craft work was done in small workshops. They made textiles, pottery, weapons and farm tools.

- Trade became important, especially around the Mediterranean. Greeks traded with each other across the Aegean Sea. There was also commerce with Egypt, Italy and Mesopotamia.

SOCIETY

Ancient Greek society was very unequal:

- Citizens were the sons of free fathers. All the great landowners and rich merchants were citizens.

- Metics, or foreigners, were the people who lived in a polis but they were not born there. They did not have political rights.

- Slaves were the children of slaves, prisoners of war, or people who could not pay their debts. There were many slaves, and their work was very hard.

FAMILY LIFE

- Men were in charge of economic activities and were responsible for the cult to ancestors. They were the head of the family. The andron was a space in homes for males and their male visitors.

- Women did not have political rights, and mainly stayed at home. In homes, the gynaikonitis was a space reserved for women.

- Boys from wealthy families went to school or had private teachers. At the age of 18 they became ephebes, who did military service.

- Girls received less education than boys. But some girls learned to play music and to read and write.

CLOTHES AND FOOD

- Clothes were often brightly coloured. People wore tunics and cloaks. They used sandals, but often walked barefoot at home.

- Food. The Greeks ate cereals, cheese, eggs, olives and fruit. Wealthier people also ate meat and fish.

5.      GREEK CULTURE

Greek culture had a great influence both in ancient times and later periods. It is often considered to be the foundation of Western civilisation.

PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE

- In philosophy, the Greeks were the first to use reason to examine the nature of human beings and the world around them. The greatest Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

- The names of some great scientists have survived, including Pythagoras in mathematics, Archimedes in physics, and Hippocrates in medicine.

- In geography, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth. In history, Herodotus was considered to be the “Father of History”, and Thucydides wrote a history of the Peloponnesian War.

LITERATURE

- Homer’s epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, were written around 700 BC and were greatly admired by later Greek writers. The Greeks wrote many other types of poetry, including odes celebrating events or people. They also wrote short lyrical poems, like those by Sappho, a woman poet.

- Early theatre probably developed from religious ceremonies. Later there were competitions each year, when authors competed for prizes. Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote the greatest tragedies, and Aristophanes wrote the finest comedies.

RELIGION

The Greeks were polytheists, who had many gods. Their gods had the appearance of human beings, but had supernatural powers.

- The Greeks believed that the gods lived on Mount Olympus, where Zeus was the supreme god. Other important gods were Hera (Zeus’s wife and goddess of family), Aphrodite (goddess of beauty and love), Athena (goddess of wisdom), Apollo (god of science and art), and Poseidon (god of the sea).

- Each city also had its own god that protected the city. Their official cult involved sacrifices and processions, like those of the Panathenaia festival in Athens. The Greeks also believed in heroes, like Hercules, who were the children of gods and human beings.

- Temples were holy places, where prayers and offerings were made. The Greeks consulted oracles, which were believed to communicate messages from the gods.

- The Olympic Games were sports competitions in honour of the gods. They were held every four years. Greeks from all the city states participated in these and therefore helped to unite Greek civilisation.

6.      GREEK ART

ARCHITECTURE

The Greeks tried to achieve proportion and harmony in their architecture. They constructed buildings on a human scale. They used columns to support buildings. There were three orders, or styles, in their architecture. These were identified by the doric, ionian or corinthian columns that they used. In Greek architecture, the temples were the most splendid buildings.

SCULPTURE

- In Archaic sculptures, figures were rigid and had no expression.

- In the Classical period, sculptors learned how to use anatomical details to represent beauty and harmony.

- In the Hellenistic period, sculptures became more dynamic and realistic.

7.      THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD

The Greek city states were weakened and divided after the Peloponnesian Wars. After a long period of conflicts, King Phillip II of Macedonia conquered Greece. From 337 BC his son Alexander the Great conquered the Persian empire, and built an empire that stretched all the way to western India. After Alexander’s death, the empire divided into a number of hellenistic monarchies. However, Greek cultural influence was maintained in all these regions. One of the finest hellenistic cities was Alexandria, the new capital of Egypt.