UNIT 11: ANCIENT ROME

1.      THE ORIGINS OF ROME

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC in the centre of the Italian Peninsula. The people who lived on the Italian Peninsula during this period came from different origins:

- The etruscans lived in the north and centre of Italy.

- The latins lived in central Italy, where they founded Rome.

- The greeks established colonies in the south, which was called Maegna Graecia.

SOCIETY

Roman society was hierarchical. It consisted of the following groups:

- The patricians belonged to powerful families and claimed to be descendants of Rome’s original aristocracy. They were landowners and held all the important political positions.

- The plebeians were the majority of the population. They were free but in the early Republic they did not have the same political rights as patricians. Later, they achieved equal rights. After many disturbances a tribune of the plebeians was created to represent them.

- Slaves were prisoners of war, people who could not pay their debts, or the children of slaves. They had no rights. Freed slaves, called liberti, did not become citizens and often continued to work for their old owners.

THE MONARCHY

Early Rome was a monarchy (753 BC –(to) 509 BC). There were four Latin kings, who were later followed by three Etruscan kings. The kings held political, military and religious authority. They were advised by the senate, which was formed by the heads of aristocratic families. There was also a comitia, or assembly, which elected the king.

The Romans deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 BC, and established a new system of government: the republic.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION

Rome was a republic from 509 BC to 27 BC. It had the following institutions:

- The comitia were assemblies where all citizens participated. They voted laws and elected magistrates.

- The leading officials, or magistrates, were elected each year. The most important magistrates were the consul, praetor and censor.

- The senate had 300 members, who were former magistrates. It had great power. It controlled the magistrates, the army, religion and foreign policy.

2.      THE EXPANSION OF ROME

Rome conquered many new territories under the Republic. The main stages in this territorial expansion were the following:

- Rome unified the Italian Peninsula between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC.

- In the three Punic Wars, Rome fought against Carthage for control of the western Mediterranean. They conquered the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia in the first war, defeated the great Carthaginian general Hannibal in the second war, and destroyed Carthage after the third.

- In the Macedonian Wars (3rd –(to) 2nd centuries BC), the Romans gained control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

- From the 2nd century BC, the Romans expanded in the west, where they gained control of the Iberian Peninsula and Gaul.

After all these conquests, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean, which they called Mare nostrum, or “our sea”.

3.      THE ROMAN EMPIRE

As a result of its territorial expansion, Rome had a greater population and more raw materials. It benefited from increased wealth and trade. But the wars also caused social conflicts, because farmers had to leave their land to serve in the army. As the republic weakened, army generals acquired the real power. Three generals, Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, ruled as a triumvirate before Julius Caesar bécame dictator. After Caesar’s assassination, three more generals, Octavian, Mark Anthony and Lepidus, created a second triumvirate. But Octavian defeated its other members and was declared the Emperor Augustus in 27 BC.

IMPERIAL GOVERNMENT

Many institutions, such as the senate, continued to exist under the empire. However, the emperors now had supreme authority.

In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Roman empire expanded its frontiers, and there was little social disorder. This period of stability was known as the pax romana, or “the Roman peace”. The empire was divided into provinces. These were ruled by a governor, who was assisted by other Roman officials. The Roman frontier, or limes, was defended by a long line of fortifications. Inside the empire, the conquered people were strongly romanised, and adopted Roman customs, beliefs and language. They became Roman citizens after an imperial law of 212 AD.

4.      ROMAN SOCIEDTY AND ECONOMY

FAMILY LIFE

Unit 11: Ancient Rome

Wealthy families had slaves and free servants.

- The father, or pater familias, was head of the family. He controlled the family, supervised household religion, and arranged marriages for his children.

- Women had no political rights, so their role was restricted to family life. They married very young, and then looked after the family home. But many women also worked, and some women owned property.

- Only the children of wealthy families received an education. Both girls and boys were educated at home, often by Greek teachers. Later, girls were trained by their mothers to perform domestic duties. Boys received more training under their father’s supervisión.

FOOD AND CLOTHING

The main meal was the cenae, or evening meal. Wealthy people ate meat, fish, vegetables and fruit, and drank wine. Poor people ate cereals mixed with water and fat and sometimes ate fruit.

The clothing for wealthy men consisted of a tunic, which was covered with a toga. For wealthy women the tunic was covered with a stola. Roman women gave great importance to their hair and often wore decorations in it. This can be seen in the sculptures and paintings of Roman women. The clothing of the poor and slaves was not as decorative. It was simple and modest.

THE ECONOMY

Rome had a slave economy. Slaves were used in agriculture, mining and for work in the cities.

- Agriculture was the main economic activity. The Romans grew many types of produce, including cereals, olives and vines. Some regions specialised in one produce, so a lot of corn was grown in Egypt, olives in Hispania, and vines in Gaul. The Romans used ploughs, hand mills, and wine or olive presses.

- Craftwork was carried out in workshops, where slaves were used. mines belonged to the state, and were rented to wealthy people. They used slave labour.

- Trade was helped by the stability of the Empire, the use of Roman currency, and an excellent road system.

5. ROMAN CITIES

Roman cities were centres of romanisation. They helped to spread Roman culture throughout the Empire. Cities had a grid system, similar to a military camp. They had two main streets: the cardo, going from North to South, and the decumanus, going from East to West. The forum was the central square where the two streets crossed. Political, social and economic activity took place there.

There were many types of buildings:

- Public buildings included basilicas, where justice was administered.

- There were temples to gods and goddesses. Public baths were also meeting places.

- There were also buildings for entertainment. Gladiator combats took place in amphitheatres, and chariot races in circuses. There were shows at theatres.

PRIVATE HOUSES

There were two main types of private houses in Roman cities:

- The insulae were shared buildings with many small apartments. There were often shops and workshops on the ground floor.

- The domus was a house for a single wealthy family. Its rooms surrounded an atrium, or indoor courtyard.

5.      ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

In many ways, Roman architecture was like Greek architecture, but there were some important differences:

- Roman architecture was monumental, and on a larger scale than Greek architecture.

- The Romans had very practical objectives. They carried out great engineering works like aqueducts, roads and bridges.

- Unlike the Greeks, the Romans used arches and vaults.

- The Romans invented new orders, as well as using the Greek orders.

- The Romans used stone for construction materials, as did the Greeks. Other materials included bricks and cement.

7. ROMAN ART AND CULTURE

Unit 11: Ancient Rome

- In sculpture, some Roman works of art were copies of Greek originals. In general, Romans created more realistic portraits than the Greeks, and were less interested in ideal beauty. But many idealised sculptures of the emperor Augustus were found in all regions, and helped to spread the idea of a unified empire. The Romans also created reliefs, which showed important events. Equestrian statues were used to honour emperors or generals.

- Paintings decorated the walls of palaces and the houses of wealthy people. The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the introduction of perspective in their drawings.

- Mosaics were made of tiny square pieces of stone, glass or tile. They decorated floors with scenes showing daily life, war or religion.

CLASSICAL CULTURE

We refer to classical culture to describe the lasting influence of Greek and Roman civilisation. Roman civilisation was a mixture of Greek, Etruscan and other influences. Imperial expansion spread this cultura across all the Mediterranean, and into part of present-day Europe.

- Many modern European languages come from Latin, which was the language of the whole empire.

- Writers like Ovid and Virgil were greatly admired long after the end of the Roman empire.

- Later legal systems were often based on Roman law.

ROMAN RELIGION

Roman religion was polytheistic. Many Roman gods and goddesses were originally Greek, and received Latin names. The Romans worshipped the Lares and Penates, who were household gods. They also believed in the Manes, who were the spirits of their ancestors. They were superstitious and consulted the gods before they took important decisions. Some emperors were considered gods, and temples were built in their honour.

8. THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

In the 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire entered a crisis.

- Politics: the wars against the Germanic people increased the influence of the army. The emperor began to rely more on mercenaries, who were not under his control.

- The economy: now that Roman expansion had ended, there were fewer slaves to work in mining and agriculture. There was a fall in production and trade.

- Society: urban life declined. The Empire increased taxes, and many people left the cities because they could not pay them. They went to work on villas. Villas had been country homes for rich people, but now people grew food to survive.

Unit 11: Ancient Rome

CHRISTIANITY

In the 1st century AD, the followers of Jesus of Nazareth founded christianity. This was a monotheistic religion, so Christians believed in only one God. According to Christianity, people should love each other, and would receive eternal life if they followed their religion. During the 3rd century AD, Christianity spread through the Empire. The Christians refused to worship the emperor or serve in the Roman army. They were persecuted, and practised their religion in private homes, or underground passageways called catacombs.

In 313 AD, the emperor Constantine allowed religious freedom. In 380 AD, the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Empire.

THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS

From the 3rd century AD, there were many invasions by Germanic people.

The Romans called these people barbarians, or foreigners. Their migrations were caused by:

- Population growth, which made them look for new areas to settle.

- The pressure from other people further east, which forced them to migrate towards the west and south.

Rome was now too weak to resist, so Roman emperors made a series of agreements with Germanic chieftains. They were granted territory inside the empire.

The Western Roman empire ended in the 5th century. In 410 AD the Visigoths destroyed Rome. In 476 AD a Germanic chieftain deposed Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor in the west.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

In 395 AD the emperor Theodosius divided the Roman empire between his two sons. Rome remained the capital of the western empire and Constantinople became capital of the eastern empire. The eastern empire survived the invasions and became known as the Byzantine empire. Byzantium was the name of a Greek colony where Constantinople was founded. Byzantine civilisation was influenced by Greek and Roman culture, and Greek was its official language. Under the emperor Justinian (527 –(to) 565 AD), Byzantium reconquered part of the territory of the western empire.