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SUMMARIES UNIT 10 : BAROQUE EUROPE (2ºESO)

  1. THE EUROPEAN ECONOMY
WAS THERE A CRISIS IN 17 TH-CENTURY EUROPE)?
In the 7 th century, agricultural production fell in manya reas and there was little economic and demographic growth. The Thirty Year’s War caused great disruption in Germany and other regions. But the situation was not th same in all parts of Europe:
  • Population. Agricultura was not very productive, and there was not enough food toe at as a result of a series of bad harvests. There were famines and epidmics. Consequently, population only grew slowly or ven declined in some regions. But there was demographic growth in north-est Europe.
  • Th economy. In editerranean regions, like Spain, the economy was weak. However, there was economic growth in north-west Europe, especially in France, the United Provinces and England.
  • Socity. There was still great inequality in society. But this did not take the same form everywhere:
    • In Mediterranean Europe, which was mainly Caholic, the nobility and clergy maintained their dominant position.
    • In north-west Europe, which as manly Protestant, the bourgeoisie became rich through trade and industry. Thanks to its wealth, it acquired a key role in society.
THE RISE OF NORTHERN EUROPE
Before the 17 h century,the Mediterranean was the great cente of influence in Europe. But north Europea countris, such as France, he United Provinces and England, now became more important than before.
  • England and the United Provinces became leading trading nations. They created trading corporations that were supported by the state. He ost famous of these was the Dutch East India Company (1602), which has a monopoly of Dutch colonial trade with Asia.
  • Merchant capitalism. There was a considerable growth of banking and financial activity, and he circulation of money increased.
  • According to th theory of mercantilism, government control of foreign trade was essential to guarantee the accumulation of gold and silver. Consequently, several wars were fought over trade between th English and the Dutch.
  • Nort European countries developed manufacturing industries, whic made textiles, weapons and luxury ítems. In France, state manufacturing compañies were created.
  • Commercial and industrial expansion led to changes in the society of northern Europe, especially in Protestant countries. Trade and industry made the bourgeoisie richer. Consequently, wealth became a ky factor in determining a person’s social position.

  1. POLITICAL CHANGE IN EUROPE
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
The Habsburg dynasties of Spain and Austria dominated Europe in the early 17 th cntury and both were strong supporters of Catholicism. Opposition to Habsburg ascendancy and religious differences led to the outbreak of the Thirty Year’s War (1618- 1648).
This war started when the Protestans of Bohemia, in he present-day Czech Republic, rebelled against the Austrian emperor Ferdinand II. Protestants and Catholics throughout Europe then allied themselves with one side or the other. Austria and Spain fought against Sweden, Denmark and the United Provinces. There was also a war btween Spain and England in 1625 – 1630. Frannce was a Catholic country, but from 1635 it allied with rotestant forces in ordr to weaken its great rival, Habsburg Spain.
The war ended with Habsburg defeat at the Treaty of Westphaia (1648). After this, the United rovinces and Sweden both acquired greater influence. But the French Bourbon monarchy was the biggest winner. The war between France and Spain continued for another decade until French Bourbon ascendancy was confirmed at the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659).
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY IN FRANCE
France was an aboslute monarchy under Louis XIV. This mant that all power was held by the king, who received his autorithy from God. The king vrated a powerful bureaucreacy, as well as a diplomatic service and a permanent army. Louis XIV’s foreign policy aimed for Europan domination. He acquired new territories under the Treaties of Westphalia (1648)and the Pyrenees (1659).
POLITICAL CHANGE IN ENGLAND
In England, the political systm went through many changes. In the early 17 th century King Charles I tried to establish an absolute monarchy. But he was strongly opposed by Parliament, which was controlled by radical Protestants. Parliamentary forces triumphed in a Civil War and Charles I was executed. For a few years, England was a Republic under Oliver Cromwell.
The Monarchy was restored in 1660, but a second uprising, called the Glorious Revolution, overthrew King James II  in 1688. This tim England remained a monarchy, but a Bill of Righs recognised the right to hold elections and confirmed the powers of Parliaent.
These changes set England on th road towards a parliamentary monarchy. England was an exception in Europe, because most states followed the example of Louis XIV ‘s absolute monarchy.


EUROPE AFTER THE THIRTY YEARS ‘ WAR
The balance of power was vry different in Europe after the Thirty Years’ War. th most important development was the rise of France and the decline of the Habsburg monarchies. But there were other changes:
  • The Holy Roman Emperor now had almost no authority over any of the states that made up his empire, in practice, they were indeendent.
  • The United Provinces was officially recognised as a Republic. Dutch comercial and maritime power made the United Provinces one of the great European naions.
  • New powers like Sweden and Denmark became influential in northern Europe.

  1. THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

THE ORIGIN OF MODERN SCIENCE
During the Renaissance, humanist philosophers  had already questioned traditional ideas and bliefs. This critical way of thonking had great influence. According to the scientific method of the 17 th centuy, it as not enough to consult the Bible or ancient Greek authors in order to understand how things worked. Philosophers and sicentists based their work on he following principles:
  • Empiricism. According to Francis Bacon it was necessary to prove things by studying the evidence systematically.
  • Rationalism. The philosopher Descartes argued that we should use our reason to discover universal truths.
Scientific progress was also ossible thaks to improvments in mathematics, which enabled scientists tocalculate phenomena more accurately. New scientific and measuring instruments were invented:
  • The telescope allowed scientists to study the universe more accurately. The microscope improved their knowledge of how the human body works.
  • The thermometer enabled people to measure temperatura. The barometer allowed them to measure atmospheric pressure.
SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES
Careful reflection and research led to great scientific discoveries. Scientific academies were created to promote investigation like the Royal Society of London (1660 ) and the French Academy of Sciences (1666).
  • In the 16 th century, the astronomer Copernicus had already proposed the heliocentric theory that the Earth revolved around the Sun. In this period, Kepler studied the movement of the planets and showed that their orbit was elliptical.
  • In physics, Newton established the law of universal gravitation. This theory explained the movement of the planets and why bodies fell to Earth. Pascal established that the pressure in a liquid is trasmitted equally in all directions. This became known as Pascal’s Law.
  • In mathematics, Descartes created analytic geometry, which uses algebra to represent geometrical forms. Leibniz invented infinitesimal calculus to work out the form of mathematical curves.
  • In medicine, great progress was made in anatomy  thaks to the dissection of corpes. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood and demostrated hat the heart pumped blood around the body.

  1. BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

WHAT WAS THE BAROQUE  STYLE?
Baroque became the main artistic style in Europe during the 17 th and early 18 th centuries. It was a highly dramatic and ornamental style. Baroque art was used as a visual propaganda for religious and political purposes:
  • In the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church used religious art to demonstrate the spiritual grandeur of Christianity against the austee simplicity of Protestantism. Baroque religious architecture was especially remarkable in Catholic countries like Italy.
  • But the Baroque style spread beyond Catholic countries and also influenced non-religious art and architecture. In politics, Baroque architecture was a way of demostrating the power and glory of monarchs. Impressive baroque palaces were built with royal patronage.
BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE
In Baroque architecture, façades were highly decorated and curving forms created an impression of dynamism. Spiral, or Solomonic, columns also produced this effect. Some buildings, especially in Italy, had a complex geometry that used both convex and concave forms.
  • The Baroque style was first created in Rome where the opes commissioned great building projects for churches, palaces and squares. Bernini and Borromini were both outstanding architects.
  • In France,the Baroque style was not as extravagant as in Italy.king Louis XIV’s palace at Versailles showed the importance of royal patronage.
  • In England, the style was also more classical and restrained than Italy. Saint Paul’s Cathedral in London was the outstanding building of this period.
  • In Spain, Churrigueresque architecture had highly ornamental surface decoration. Handsome main squares, or plazas mayores, were designed for Madrid and Salamanca.
BAROQUE SCULPTURE
Baroque sculpture moved away from the Renaissance ideals of balance and reason to represent highly dramatic scenes. It was dynamic, often showing figures in movement. Sculptors found ways to make scenes even more theatrical, for example, by creating shadows from the folds of a figure’s clothing.
Bronze and marble were used. But Spanish religious sculptures were often made of polychrome wood.
BAROQUE SCULPTURE IN EUROPE
  • In Italy, the greatest Baroque sculptor was Berniniin Rome, who created highly expressive works of art. His “Ecstasy of Saint Teresa “ is a highly emotional representation of mysticism, in the spirit of the Counter- Reformation.
  • In Spain, there was a tradition of wooden religious sculptures. Altarpieces were made for churches and images were created for religious processions.
  • However, not all Baroque sculpture was religious. For example, in France, classical scenes were represented in Girardon’s “Apollo and the Nymphs”. In Germany, Schüter’s “Equestrian Statue of the Great Elector” maintained the Renaissance tradition of portraying leading figures.

  1. BAROQUE PAINTING
CHARACTERISTICS OF BAROQUE PAINTING
Baroque painting had the following characteristics:
  • Realism . It was completely realistic and there was no atempt to idealise the subject.
  • Movement. Figures were shown in dynamic postures, and compositions were not necessarily symmetrical.
  • Colour. Painters created forms directly from colour. Sometimes they didn´t draw preparatory sketches.
  • Light. Artists often contrasted light and dark to make a scene more dramatic.
  • Varied subjects. Painters still painted religious and mythogical scenes as well as portraits. But there was a new interest in everyday scenes and still lifes.
CARAVAGGIO
The Italian painter Caravaggio had a great influence on other artists. In many of Caravaggio’s paintings a scene in shadows was theatrically illuminated by light. Caravaggio used por people as his models, depicting them in a highly realistic style.
Caravaggio’s greatest works of art include “Supper at Emmaus”. Caravaggio’s life was very dramatic because he killed a man in a fight and then fled from Rome.
FLEMISH AND DUTCH PAINTING
A school of painters in Flanders developed a naturalistic and highly detailed style.
  • The most influential Flemish painter was Rubens who painted highly colourful scenes, full of movement. Rubens was an extremely prolific painter whose many paintings on historical, religious or contemporary scenes can be found today in museums all over Europe.
  • Other Flemish artists included the portrait painter Van Dyck.
Baroque art ws produced in Protestant countries as well as Catholic monarchies. Patrons for Dutch painting came from Holland’s wealthy alvinist bourgeoisie. Dutch artists painted exceptional landscapes, portraits and scenes from everyday life:
  • Rembrandt was a great portrait painter, who created a remarkable series of self-portraits. He also painted realistic scenes of everyday life. The “Night Wach “ and “ The Anatomy Lesson” are among his most famous works of art.
  • Frans Hals painted portraits of wealthy Dutch citizens.
  • Vermeer achieved great mastery in the use of light. He painted a small number of perfectly executed scenes of bourgeois domestic life. His masterpieces include “The Art of Painting and Girl with a Pearl Earring”.

  1. THE GOLDEN AGE IN SPAIN
WHAT WAS THE GOLDEN AGE?
The Golden Age was the great flowering of Spanish art and literatura in the second half of the 16 th century and much of the 17 th century. It began when Spain was the most powerful state in Euroe, but continued when this was no longer the case. Its greatest writers and artista, like Cervantes and Velázquez, are recognised as being key figures in European civilisation.
LITERATURE
This period was one of great literary achievement:
  • Fiction. Cervantes’ Don Quijote de la Mancha is a masterpiece of world literatura. But other fine works of fiction were also written, like the picaresque novels that narrated the adventures of low-born heroes. Examples include Quevedo’s La Vida del Buscón and the anonymous “Lazarillo de Tormes”.
  • Theatre. Playwrights like Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca wrote comedies and tragedies that examined the human dilema. Tirso de Molina created the Character Don Juan , who became one of the most famous figures in western culture.
  • Poetry. Quevedo’s poetry was brilliant, concise and cynical. Góngora’s style was much more elaborate. He two great poets disliked and criticised each other.
PAINTING
In the 17 th century, Spanish painting reached a veryhigh level of achievements. There were many important painters:
  • Francisco de Zurbarán painted austere religious scenes and highly detailed still lifes.
  • Like Zurbarán, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo was from Sevilla. He also painted religious scenes.
  • José de Ribera mainly worked in Naples. His use of colour was influenced by the Italian painter Caravaggio.
THE GENIUS OF VELÁZQUEZ
The most important Spanish painter was Diego de Velázquez (1599 -1660). Who was one of the greatest artists of all time.
Velázquez was born in Sevilla in 1599. His early work was highly realistic. He often painted scenes from low life, like “The Old Woman Frying Eggs” (La vieja friendo huevos).
In 1623 he went t olive in Madrid here  King Felipe IV made him the court painter. This was why so many of his paintings represented members of the royal family and courtiers like the “Count- Duke of Olivares”. He also painted symathetic portraits of buffoons and dwarfs.
Velázquez made two visits to Italy, where he studied the work of the great Italian painters. After his first visit to Italy in 1629-30, Velázquez returned to Mdrid where he painted many of his portraits, nudes and landscapes. He also depicted contemporary events such as “The Surrender of Breda” (La rendición de Breda) in 1635.
Velázquez’s later style developed after a second visit to Italy in 1649-1651. After that, he created large, complex compositions which showed complete mastery of perspective and the effects of light. Velázquez ‘s later style included mythological paintings like “The Fable of Arachne “ (las Hilanderas) and “Las Meninas”, his extraordinary portrayal of Flipe IV’s family.

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