SUMMARIES UNIT 9 : HABSBURG SPAIN (2º ESO)

1. THE REIGN OF CARLOS V

WHY WAS CARLOS V (1519-1558) ALSO CALLED CARLOS I (1516-1556)?

Carlos became King of Spain in 1516. He was called both Carlos I and Carlos V because he received a vast dynasic inheritance from both sides of his family:

• On his mother’s side, he nherited all the territories brought together by his grandparents, the Catholic Monarchs. He was the ruler of the Crowns of Castilla and Aragón along with their territories in America, Italy and Africa. As King of Spain, he was called Carlos I.
• On his father’s side, he was a member of the Habsburg family. He inherited territories in Germany, the Low Countries, Luxembourg and Eastern France. As Carlos  V, he became Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.

EARLY OPPOSITION TO CARLOS V

Carloswas born in Ghent – in present-day Belgium_ in 1500 and couldn’t speak Spanish when he first arrived in Spain in 1517. Carlos was accompanied by Flemish advisers who were given key oficial positions.

Opposition to high taxation and foreign influence at the court caused unrest in many cities and towns:

• The Revolt of the comuneros broke out in Castilian cities in 1520. The royal army defeated the comuneros at the Batlle of Villalar in 1521, and their leaders were executed.
• There was also unrest in Mallorca and Valencia, where the Germanía revolts tokk place between 1519 and 1523.

CARLOS V’ s INTERNATIONAL POLICIES

Carlos V  had so many territories across Europe that he became involved in wars and confrontations in many places:

• Againts France . he fought against King François I  of France for the Duchy of Milan. Carlos V won an important victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, but the rivalry with France continued all his lifetime.
• Againts the Turks. The Ottoman Turks threatened the Mediterranean region and the Eastern frontiers of the Holy Roman Empire. Under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the Turks failed to take Vienna in 1529 but they still controlled most of the Eastern Mediterranean.
• Against the Protestants. Carlos V was a strong Catholic suporter, but at first he did little to assist the Church. However, in the 1540s he became influenced by the ideas of the Counter-Reformation. He fought and defeated the German Protestant princes at the Battle of Mühlberg(1547). The Augsburg declaration (1548)allowed Protestants some religious freedom.

By 15556, Carlos V was in por health and exhausted. In that year, he abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor in favor of his brother Ferdinand, who received his Austria territories. His son Felipe became the ruler of the rest of his empire.

IMPERIAL FINANCES

Carlos V’s wars were very expensive. He was only able top ay for them by raising taxes throughout his empire. The gold and silver sent from America was another source of income for the Crown.

But the Crown still had to borrow extra money fro German and Italian bankers. Rising royal debt was later the cause of serious problems under Carlos’ successors.

2. THE REIGN OF FELIPE II

THE SPANISH MONARCHY OF FELIPE II (1556 -1598)

Felipe II was the ruler of a great empire, although at the time people only called it a “monarchy”. Unlike his father Carlos V, Felipe II mainly lived in Spain and governed from there. Felipe II made Madrid his capital and built a monastery and royal residence at El Escorial, not far from his capital.

Under Felipe II, the monarchy created by the Catholic Monarchs became even more authoritarian. The Cortes were only called occasionally. The monarch was personally involved in government, which was carried out by powerful committees called Councils. Royalofficials were sent to govern in each region.

POLICIES IN SPAIN

Felipe II’s rule in Spain was authoritarian, and sometimes provoked resistance:

• The defence of Catholicism. Felipe II fully supported the Counter- Reformation and wanted to keep his territories free of Protestant influence. He used the Inquisition to censor books and arrest people suspected of spreading Protestantism. Spnaniards were not allowed to travel abroad or study at foreign universities.

The concept of purity of blood (limpieza de sangre) reflected religious intolerance. High public office was reserved for people who could show that they didn’t have Jewish or Muslim ancestors.

• The revolt of the moiscos broke out in the Alpujarras region in 1568, after Felipe II had forbidden the use of Arabic and traditional clothing. Felipe II defeated this rebellion, and many moriscos were then forced to move away from Granada and live in other regions.
• Unrest in Aragón. Felipe II strengthened his monarchy at the expense of the rights of each kingdom. When an oficial called Antonio Pérez fled to Aragón to escape royal justice, Felipe II insisted that he should be sent back to Castilla. The Aragonese refused because he was protected by their laws. A revolt broke out, which Felipe defeated and used as an excuse to reduce Aragonese autonomy.

POLICIES IN EUROPE

Felipe II’s international policies aimed to strengthen his territories and defend Catholicism against the Ottoman Turks and Protestantism. He was widely regarded as the most important monarch in Europe, but nota ll his policies were successful:

• France. Felipe II defeated the French at the Battle of Saint Quentin (1557), which was followed by the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559). But this rivalry was renewed near the end of his reign.
• The Turkish Empire. Felipe II formed a Holy League with Venice, Genoa and the Papacy. This Alliance defeated the Turks at the greatsea Battle of Lepanto in 1571, which ended Turkish control of the Eastern Mediterranean.
• Portugal. Felipe II claimed the Portuguese throne through his mother, Isabel of Portugal. He had a rival but his victory at the Battle of Alcántara won him recognition as King of Portugal in 1581. After thay, his rule over Portuguese terrtories overseas made his empire even vaster.
• The Nether lands. There was opposition to high taxes, and Calvinism replaced Catholicism in the north. After a period of unrest, he northern provinces (the Netherlands today) declared their Independence in 1579, under the name of the United Provinces. The soutern provinces (present-day Belgium and Luxembourg) stayed under Spanish rule. This was the beginning of a long war.
• England. Felipe II wanted to bring England back to Catholicism and stop English attacks o Spanish ships. He planned to invade England but his great fleet, the Spanish Armada or Invincible Armada wasdefeated in 1588.

It was very expensive to fight all hese wars. Felipe II ‘s income was also reduced by the falling value of American gold and silver. As a consequence, the royal treasury went bankrupt and stopped paying its debts several times during his reign.

3. THE CONQUEST AND COLONISATION OF AMERICA

THE CONQUEST

Castilla took control of the West Indies in the late 15th and early 16 th centuries . after that, a series of expeditions gradually established Castilian rule in vast territories in America. The Spanish conquest destroyed two great empires, in Mexico and Peru:

• The conquest of Mexico was achieved by a small expedition led by Hernán Cortés, who lande don the coast of Mexico in 1519, but in fact Cortés’ victory was only posible because he had the sipport of nativepeoples who opposed Aztec rule. After overcoming mamy difficulties, Cortés defeated the Aztec emperor Moctezumain 1521.
• An exedition led by Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in the Andes. Like Cortés, Pizarro was helped by local tensions. There was a civil war between rivals for the Inca throne just before his arrival. Pizarro’s expedition defeated the Incas at the Battle of Cajamarca (1532) when the Inca emperor Atahualpa was captured and later executed.
• Other expeditions. There were many other expeditions across America, like the expeditions of Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia to Chile, and Jiménez de Quesada’s conquest of New Granada, which is now Colombia.

THE COLONISATION OF AMERICA

New territories were colonised as son as they wre conquered. Peninsular Spaniards went to settle in them. New towns and cities were founded, such as Mexico City, Lima and Bogotá.

In this way, Spanish culture Christianity and the Castilian language all became firmly established in America. Catholic missions played a key role in spreading Christianity among the native Americans.

HOW AMERICA WAS GOVERNED

The conquered territories formed part of the Crown of Castilla. The same insitutions that governed Spain were also set up in America:

• In the 16 th century, there were two Viceroyalties called New Spain (Mexico and Central America) and Peru (South America). He Viceroys who governed these regions reorted directly to the King.
• Beneath the Viceroys, Governors were in charge of provinces. City councils, or cabildos, administered municipalities. Alcaldes mayores had authoity at a local level, while corregidores, apointed by the Crown, were in charge in larger cities.
• An Audiencia had  judicial authority over a larg region. For example, the Audience of Quito covered all the territory of present-day Ecuador.

New institutions were created in peninsular Spain to meet the challenge of ruling a vast empire:

• The Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias) was added to the Councils hat advised the monach. It was the highest autority on American administration and law.
• A Trade Authoity (Casa de la Contratación)was founded in Sevilla in 1503. This body regulated trade with America and imposed taxes on goods entering Spain. It also controlled emigration.

4. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN AMERICA

THE ECONOMY

America sent many of its resources to Spain between the 16 th and 18th centuries. But Spanish territories also developed their own economies and traded with each other:

• Agriculture and livestock farming. The agricultural workforce was mainly Indian in the 16 th century. Under the encomienda system, the Indians were required t olive and work on the land of leading Europeans. Spanish farms eventually turned into great estates called haciendas.

Many crops were unkown in America before the  Spanish conquest. The Europeans introduced crops such as wheat, the vine, olives and sugar cane. They also brought animals like horses and pigs.

• Mining. The mines at Potosí (in the Andes) and Zacatecas (in Mexico) produced huge amounts of silver. The mita was a system of forced labour that supplied the Indian workforce for the mines.

In theory, all the silver mined in America belonged to the Spanish Crown. But in practice, the monarchy granted mining rights in return for receiving its own share.

• Trade. This was a monopoly of the Crown, regulated by the Casa de Contratacón. Large fletes of ships left Sevilla to cross the Atlantic.

Manufactured goods and agricultural products were sent to Aerica from Spain. The ships returned with large amounts of silver and gold. They also brought back ítems that were completely new in Europe like corn, potatoes, tobacco and cacao (from hich chocolate is made).

INDIAN DECLINE

There was a dramatic decline in the Indian population of America after the Spanish conquest. This had the following causes:

• Infectious diseases, like smallpox and measles, were completely unknown in America so the Indians had  no natural resistance. Many died during epidemics.
• Conditions wereextremely harsh in mines and on latations.

Bartolomé de las Casas was a friar who strongly condemned the mistreatment of the American Indians. In 1542 the Crown approved the New Laws that decreed the gradual abolition of encomiendas and regulated the treatment of the native population.

SOCIETY

Spanish American society was strongly hierarchical. A person’s social position was determined by their race and wealth:

• Whites were the dominant group. They held oficial positions and acquired wealth from land ownership and commerce. Many imortant oficial positions were held by peninsular Spaniards. But creoles, who were born in America, made up the majoority of the White population.
• Mestizos were he children of whites and Indians. More men that women emigrated to America so White men often had children with Indian women. As a result, mestizos quickly increased in numbers until they became a significant part of the population.
• Indians wre the largest group but in some tropical areas their numbers declined very rapidly. They were replaced by black slaves, who were transported from Africa across the Atlantic . in tropical areas the blacks worked in very harsh conditions on sugar and tobacco lantations.

5. THE 17 TH CENTURY CRISIS

THE ECONOMY

The Spanish economy was in difficulty in the 17 th century. Wars were very expensive and the burden of taxation increased, especially in the Crown of Castilla.

• There was a severe crisis in agriculture. The countryside lost much of its population as a result of epidemics and conscription into the army. Consequently, agricultural production declined.
• Craftsmanship wasaffected by a fall in consumption as well as by competition from cheaer products made in other countries.
• Trade declined because economic crisis and war affected Castilian fairs and trade with America.
• The Royal Treasury was in difficulties. It needed to raise money top ay fo the Court and allow the monarch to fight his wars. At the same time, income fell because silver and gold imports from America declined. The monarchy raised some money by ncreasing taxes and selling noble titles, but these measures were not very succesful.

CONTROL OF TRADE ROUTES

After the defeat of its Invincible Armada, the Spanish fleet no longer controlled the Atlantic and it became easier for English, French and Dutch pirates to attacks Spanish ships. In fact, many of these attackers were called privateers, which meant that they were backed by governments. The privateers deliberately targeted Spanish treasure ships in the Caribbean or near Spain. Atlantic trade did not actually decline. But as a result of these attacks and tax fraud by merchants much less money entered the Royal Treasury.

DEMOGRAPHY

There had been continuous demographic growth in Spain in the 16 th century. But population stopped rising in the 17 th century and even declined in the centre and south of the Peninsula. Total population fell from 8.2 million inhabitants in 1600 to 7 million in 1700.

There were several causes: epidemics, wars, emigration to America and the expulsión of the moriscos.

SOCIETY

Spanish society was dominate by an aristocratic Outlook. It was considered more prestigious to own land than work in commerce, and there was no respect for those who worked with their hands. Unlike north-west Europe, Spain did not have a dynamic bourgeoisie. During the 17 th century, many social groups were affected by the economic crisis:

• The nobility grew in numbers because the Crown sold noble titles to raise income. Nobles increased the taxes and obligatons of their peasants.
• The clergy also became more numerous. But some people only entered the Church to escape from poverty and hunger.
• The bourgeoisie suffered the effects of the crisis because so many industries were ruined.
• Badly affected because of increased taxation, rising debt and the impact of war.

6. HABSBURG RULE IN THE 17 TH CENTURY

THE REIGN OF FELIPE III (1598 – 1621)

Felipe II’s great empire was inherited by his son Felipe III. But Felipe III was not as energetic as his father. He left political decisions to a royal favourite, or valido, who governed on his behalf.

• Felipe III’s main favourite was the Duke of Lerma, who was more concerned with his own personal interest than ruling the country.
• The Spanish economy was badly affected by financial problems. In 1607 the government declared itself bankrupt once again. The Duke of Lerma’s most disastrous decisión was the expulsión of the moriscos in 1609. The moriscos wre a hard-working minority, and the economy was damaged by their departure.
• In foreign affairs, there was a pause in the continuous wars of the previous cenury. Peace was signed wth the Dutch rebels of the United Provinces (1609)

THE REIGN OF FELIPE IV (1621-1665)

Felipe IV ‘s valido the Count-Duke of Olivares, tried to maintain Spain’s position as the leading power in Europe.

Olivares aimed to reform the Spanish state. Until then theCrown ‘s income came mainly from theCrown of Castilla, and Olivares tried to make all the kingdoms contribute. He devised a project called the Union of Arm that required all the different territories to make significant military contributions depending on their size.

There was resistance to Olivares’ measures. Cataluña broke out in a revolt in 1640, requesting support from France. The Duke of Braganza declared himself King of Portugal. After a war royal rule was restored in Cataluña in 1652, but Portugal separated definitively from Spain in 1668.

In the Thirty Years’ War, the Spanish defeat in the Battle of Rocroi (1643) was the end of Spain’s reputation as the leading military power in Europe. By the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which ended the war, Spain recognised the Independence of the United Provinces. But war continued with the French until 1659.

THE REIGN OF CARLOS II (1665-1700)

Carlos II was only two years old when hesucceeded Felipe IV and his mother ruled as regent. He was so sick and incapable that the great issue of his reign was who would succeed him. Other European monarchs intrigued to gain control of the Spanish Empire.

Before Carlos II died in 1700 he named Philip of Anjou, a meber of theFrench Bourbon dynasty, as his heir. Philip became Felipe V of Spain but he was only confirmed as monarch after the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) in which the Low Countries, England and Austria all supported a rival candidate. Carlos II’s death marked th nd of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty.