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UNIT 6: EUROPE AND SPAIN


1.      THE RELIEF OF EUROPE

Europe is in the Northern Hemisphere. It is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the south. The Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea separate it from Asia in the east. In the south-east, its boundary is the Black Sea and the Caucasus region. Europe is the fifth largest continent. As it is relatively small, it does not have the highest mountain chains, the longest rivers or the most extreme climates.
- Its coasts are generally short and irregular. There are many seas along its coastline, such as the Baltic, the North Sea, the Adriatic, the Aegean and the Cantabrian Sea.
- There are several large peninsulas, such as Scandinavia, Jutland, Italy, the Balkans and the Iberian Peninsula.
- There are many islands in Europe. The biggest islands include Iceland, the British Isles, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete and Cyprus. There are also groups of islands, called archipelagos, like the Balearic and Canary Islands.

EUROPEAN LANDFORMS

Europe is at moderate altitude, averaging around 340 metres. Its relief is very varied, and includes the following features:
- The European Plain is a large sedimentary basin that stretches from the Atlantic coast to the Urals, at an altitude of about 200 metres. Its relief is mainly flat, and includes low hills and valleys. It is crossed by many rivers.
- Ancient mountains and massifs, or highland regions, have been worn down by erosion. They include the Scandinavian Mountains in the north, the Central Massif in the west and the Ural Mountains in the east.
- Young mountain ranges are found in the south of Europe. As these mountains are more recent, they have been less affected by erosion. Consequently, they are steeper and more jagged. The Alps and the Caucasus are the highest regions in Europe. The Carpathian Mountains, the Apennines and the Pyrenees are also young mountain ranges.

2.      THE RELIEF OF SPAIN

Most of Spain’s territory is on the Iberian Peninsula. The Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla form the rest of its territory. Spain is in the south-west of Europe. Its main frontiers are:
- The Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Sea in the north.
- Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean in the west.
- The Mediterranean Sea in the east.
- The Strait of Gibraltar, connecting the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, in the south.
Nearly all the country is in the temperate zone, except for the Canary Islands. Spain has a long coastline of over 3,500 kilometres. Spain’s average altitude is fairly high, at about 660 metres. This is due to a vast plateau called the Central Plateau as well as a considerable number of mountain ranges.
Unit 6: Europe and Spain
THE RELIEF OF THE PENINSULA
- The Central Plateau is a vast inland plateau at an altitude of 650 metres. It is divided into two parts by the Central Chain, which is 700 kilometres long. The Central Plateau is also surrounded by several inland mountain regions: the Galician Massif, the Cantabrian Chain, Iberian Chain and the Morena Range.
- Other mountain regions are beyond the Central Plateau. They include the Pyrenees, the Catalan Coastal Chain and the Baetic Chain. The Pyrenees mountain range is 435 kilometres long and its highest peaks are at an altitude of over 3,000 metres.
- Lowland regions include the basins formed by the Ebro and Guadalquivir rivers. Most coastal plains are narrow strips between the mountains and the sea. Most of Spain’s coastline is flat and regular, except in Galicia, where there are many rías, or coastal inlets.

THE RELIEF OF THE ISLANDS

- The Balearic Islands. The main mountain range, the Tramontana Range, is on Majorca, which has the steepest relief. Ibiza also has steep relief. Minorca and Formentera have flatter relief.
- The Canary Islands were formed by volcanic eruptions. The Teide is the highest mountain in Spain.

3.      THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF EUROPE ND SPAIN

Europe’s rivers flow into the following oceans and seas:

- The rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean, such as the Pechora, are long and have a considerable discharge. Some of them freeze in winter, and cause flooding when they melt.
- Rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea are also long and have a considerable discharge. However, their flow is more regular. Their water is used for navigation and hydro-electric energy. They include the Oder, the Rhine, the Loire, the Duero and the Tagus.
- Most rivers that flow into the Mediterranean Sea are short and have a low discharge. They carry little water in the summer, but swell in the autumn and spring. They include the Po, the Rhône and the Ebro.
- Rivers that flow into the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea are long and have a considerable discharge. Their water is used for navigation and they are important routes of communication. They include the Volga, the Don and the Danube.

LAKES

There are many lakes in Europe, especially in Finland, Sweden and Russia. Lake Ladoga in Russia is the largest lake in Europe. There are also mountain lakes in Switzerland, Austria and Italy. The largest is Lake Geneva in Switzerland.
Unit 6: Europe and Spain
THE RIVERS OF SPAIN

 The rivers of Spain flow into three oceans and seas.
-The Cantabrian Sea. The Cantabrian Chain is close to the sea so these rivers are very short. As relief is very steep, they flow very quickly and cause erosion. As it rains all year round in the region, these rivers have a regular and abundant flow. They include the Bidasoa, the Nervión, the Sella and the Nalón.
- The Atlantic Ocean. These rivers flow from east to west because of the inclination of the Central Plateau. They are long rivers with an irregular flow because their discharge is less in summer.
- The Miño flows into the Atlantic but is similar to the Cantabrian rivers because it is in an area with regular rainfall.
- The source of the Duero river is in the Urbión Peaks and its river mouth is in Porto, Portugal.
- The Tagus river is the longest river on the peninsula. Its source is in the Albarracín Range and it flows into the Atlantic in Lisbon.
- The Guadiana flows across the south-west of the Peninsula and enters the Atlantic at Ayamonte in Huelva.
- The source of the Guadalquivir is in the Cazorla Range. It crosses Andalusia from east to west and flows into the Gulf of Cádiz.
-The Mediterranean Sea. These rivers are mainly short with a low and irregular discharge. They include the Turia, Júcar and Segura. However the Ebro is much longer, and has a far greater discharge. It flows southeast from its source in Cantabria and forms a delta on the Mediterranean coast.

4.      THE CLIMATES OF EUROPE

There is a wide range of climates in Europe. They are influenced by several factors:
- Latitude. Nearly all Europe is in the temperate zone.
- The sea. In general, seas make climates milder.
- Wind. West winds predominate, pushing areas of low pressure from the Atlantic towards the coasts.

TEMPERATURE CLIMATES

- Oceanic climate. This is found along the west of Europe from Portugal to Scandinavia. Temperatures are mild all year round, but they are higher in the south. Precipitation is regular and abundant, especially near the coast.
- Mediterranean climate. This is the climate in the south of Europe in regions bordering the Mediterranean. Summers are hot and dry, and winters are cool. Rainfall is abundant in spring and autumn.
- Continental climate. This is found in central and eastern Europe, where there are hot summers and cold winters. There is moderate rainfall, mainly in the summer. This climate is more extreme in regions that are a long way from the sea.

COLD CLIMATES

- Polar climate. This is characteristic of a narrow strip near the Arctic circle, in the northern regions of Iceland, Norway, Finland and Russia. There are low temperatures during a long winter, which is followed by a short summer. Precipitation is scarce, and falls as snow.
- High mountain climate. This is found in the main European mountain ranges. Temperatures fall and precipitation is greater as altitude increases.
Unit 6: Europe and Spain
DRY AND HOT CLIMATES

- Steppe climate. This is found to the north and south of the Caucasus. Precipitation is scarce. Temperatures are high in summer and very low in winter.
- Sub-tropical climate. This is the climate of the Canary Islands, which is in the tropical zone. Temperatures are mild and precipitation is scarce.

5.      THE CLIMATES OF SPAIN

Spain has a mainly temperate climate. Its climatic diversity is influenced by the following factors:
- Latitude influences temperatures, which are lower as we go north. It also influences precipitation, which is greater at higher latitudes.
- Atmospheric pressure. Atlantic depressions carry rain across the Iberian peninsula from east to west. Consequently, there is higher precipitation in the west than in the east. The Azores anticyclone causes dry, sunny weather in the summer. However, in winter this anticyclone moves south and polar winds enter the Peninsula.
- Altitude causes temperature to fall and precipitation to increase in mountain areas.
- Distance from the sea. The mountain ranges that surround the Central Plateau form a barrier against the influence of the sea. Consequently, temperatures are milder near the coast and more extreme inland. This also explains why precipitation is greater near the coast than in central Spain.

OCEANIC CLIMATE

This is the climate in the north and north-west of the Peninsula. All year round, precipitation is abundant and regular, at more than 800 millimetres annually. Temperatures are mild in winter and cool in summer due to the influence of the sea. Further from the coast there are greater variations in temperature and there is less precipitation.

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

This is found in the rest of the Peninsula, but it varies between different regions.
- In coastal regions, it is dry in the summer and there is moderate rainfall in spring and autumn. Temperatures are mild in winter and high in summer.
- Inland, there is a marked difference between hot summers and cold winters.
- Semi-arid temperatures are similar to the Mediterranean coast, but precipitation is less than 350 millimetres annually.

SUB-TROPICAL CLIMATE

We find this climate in the Canary Islands, which are close to the Tropic of Cancer. Temperatures are mild all year round and precipitation is scarce.

HIGH MOUNTAIN CLIMATE

This is found in the highest mountain ranges. Temperatures are lower than in the rest of Spain and average precipitation is over 1,500 millimetres annually.

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