UNIT 9: EARLY CIVILISATIONS

1.      MESOPOTAMIA: ENVIRONMENT AND HISTORY

RIVER CIVILISATIONS

Several important civilisations developed in the Middle East on the plains along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This area was later called Mesopotamia, which means “between the rivers” in Greek. Mesopotamia was like other parts of the world, such as Egypt, India and China. In all these areas, the flooding of great rivers fertilised the land and agriculture developed. As a result small settlements grew into cities.

CITY STATES AND EMPIRES

Many people lived in Mesopotamia in independent city states. The region belonged to different empires over a long period of time.

- Sumer. From 3500 BC the Sumerians lived in walled city states such as Ur and Lagash.

- Akkad. King Sargon I created an Akkadian Empire after 2300 BC and conquered Sumer.

- Babylon was originally a city state. From 1800 BC its rulers created the Babylonian empire, which conquered the other cities of Mesopotamia.

- Assyria. After 1350 BC the Assyrians created a great empire that stretched across to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt.

- In 539 BC the Persians conquered Mesopotamia and it became part of the Persian empire. Mesopotamia was later conquered by the Greeks.

SOCIETY AND THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

The city states of Sumer were ruled by high priests. When empires were created, their kings held political and religious authority. They were also military leaders. We use the term theocracy to describe this type of society, where the same person had both religious and political power. Beneath the kings, there was a hierarchical society:

- The ruling elite consisted of the aristocracy, priests and high officials.

- Scribes and merchants were intermediate groups.

- A lower level included farmers and artisans. Below them, there were slaves.

THE ECONOMY

- Agriculture: the rivers were essential. Crops were irrigated with water from canals, and dykes were built to prevent the rivers from flooding. They grew cereals and vegetables.

- Livestock: they kept sheep and cows.

- Crafts: they produced wool for cloth, pottery, metal work and jewellery.

- Trade: products were exchanged between the regions.

2.      MESOPOTAMIA: CULTURE AND ART

- In astronomy, Mesopotamians observed the stars and invented a lunar calendar.

- In mathematics, they invented numbers, and could count and weigh objects.

- Writing appeared in Mesopotamia after 4000 BC. Small pictures represented objects or animals and evolved into cuneiform writing. At first, writing was used for public administration, but later it recorded poems and stories.

- In literature, long poems like the Epic of Gilgamesh were written in 2000 BC. The Code of Hammurabi was the world’s first written law in 1750 BC.

SCULPTURE

- Statues showed kings, gods and priests.

- Carved reliefs showed hunting scenes or military victories.

RELIGION

Mesopotamians were polytheists that believed in many gods. Marduk was the god of creation, and Ishtar was the goddess of love and war. Each city also had its own gods. The temple was where the gods were worshipped.

ARCHITECTURE

Important innovations in Mesopotamian architecture were the arch and the dome. Many buildings were made from adobe bricks, and have since disappeared. However, some palaces and temples have survived.

- Palaces had impressive facades, courtyards, private rooms and libraries.

- Temples were groups of buildings. They included ziggurats, which were pyramid-shaped towers with several levels.

3.      ANCIENT EGYPT: ENVIRONMENT AND HISTORY

Ancient Egyptian civilisation developed after 4000 BC along the banks of the nile River. The Nile flooded the river valley each summer and fertilised its land. As a result, the river was so important that the Egyptians worshipped it like a god. Boats could navigate along it so it was also a trade and communications route. There were two regions:

- Upper egypt, in the south: a mainly dry region, with settlements along the Nile.

- Lower egypt, in the north: a flat, fertile area around the Nile Delta.

THE HISTORY OF EGYPT

Independent kingdoms developed in Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt until they were united by king Menes around 3100 BC. This was the beginning of a great civilisation that lasted for more than 3,000 years. There were four main periods:

- Old Kingdom (2700 -(to) 2200 BC): the kings, or pharaohs, ruled all Egypt from their capital in Memphis. The great pyramids of Giza were built.

- Middle Kingdom (2050 -(to) 1650 BC): there was territorial expansion, and the capital was moved to Thebes. Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, people from Mesopotamia.

- New Kingdom (1550 -(to) 1070 BC): expansion carried out by the pharaoh Ahmose I continued towards Libya and Syria. Famous pharaohs included Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II.

- Late Period (700 -(to) 30 BC): Egypt broke up into small independent states. It was conquered several times. In 4th BC it was conquered by Alejandro Magno and finally in 30 BC it became part of the Roman Empire.

4.      ANCIENT EGYPT: SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

SOCIETY

Ancient Egyptian society was a hierarchical society:

- The king, or pharaoh, held absolute political, military and religious authority. He was considered to be a god as well as a ruler.

- The ruling elite, apart from the nobility, included:

- Priests who were in charge of worshipping the gods.

- Scribes worked for the government and knew how to read and write.

- officials who ruled the army, and the governors who ruled provinces.

- Other members of free society included merchants, soldiers, artisans and farmers. Women had more rights than in many ancient civilisations, and could own property.

- There were also slaves who worked in the mines, domestic service or agriculture.

ECONOMY

- Irrigated agriculture: the Egyptians grew cereals to make bread and beer. They also grew vines, olives, vegetables and flax to make clothes. Water from the Nile was distributed through canals, dams and irrigation systems.

- Livestock: they kept cows, pigs, sheep, chickens and donkeys.

- Crafts: they produced textiles, pottery and jewellery in small workshops. They used papyrus to create writing paper.

- Trade: local products were exchanged along the Nile. They exported cereals, pottery and papyrus to Mesopotamia and Greece, and imported metals and luxury goods.

5.      ANCIENT EGYPT: CULTURE AND ART

CULTURE

- The Ancient Egyptians invented writing at the same time as the Mesopotamians. They used hieroglyphs, which were symbols and pictures that represented objects and ideas.

- They used astronomy to study the flooding of the Nile. They invented the solar calendar.

- They used mathematics to calculate the level of water in the Nile.

- In medicine, they learned a great deal about the human body and even practised surgery.

RELIGION

The Ancient Egyptians were polytheists, who believed in many gods. Each city had its own divinity, and Egyptians also worshipped the pharaoh and the Nile. Ra (god of the Sun), Osiris (god of the dead), Isis (goddess of fertility), Horus (god of the sky and war), Amun (god of the wind) and Anubis (guardian of the dead) were important gods throughout Egypt. Some of these gods were part human and part animal.

The Egyptians believed in life after death. The dead were mummified so that they would have a body in the afterlife.

ART

In sculpture, the main subjects were pharaohs and gods. The sculptures were rigid and expressionless. Paintings also represented pharaohs and gods, but they sometimes included details of everyday life.

ARCHITECTURE

The Ancient Egyptians built huge temples and tombs. They used big stones, columns and walls. They did not have arches or domes.

- The temples were stone buildings with an impressive entrance, courtyards and rooms that led to the god’s sanctuary. There were great temples at Karnak and Luxor. There were three types of tombs:

- Mastabas were low pyramids with a flat roof.

- Pyramids were tombs for pharaohs that were built with huge stones. The funeral chamber was hidden inside.

- Hypogea were tombs carved in rock.

Unit 9: Early civilisations