SUMMARIES UNIT 4 : THE IBERIAN PENINSULA BEETWEEN THE 8th AND 11th CENTURIES (2º ESO)

1. AL-ANDALUS

THE MUSLIM CONQUEST

Arab and Berber forces crossed over from North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula in 711. (The Berbers were etnic groups living in North Africa who had converted to Islam in the 7 th century). This Muslim rmy defeated the Visigoths under their king Rodrigo at the Battle of Guadalete in 711, beginning the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

There were two main reasons why the Muslims were successful:

• Rapid islamic expansión had taken place all across the Mediterranean, so the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was really pat of this process.
• There were internal divisions in he Visigothic Kingdom, caused by conflicto between the monarchy and he nobility. One Visigothic faction asked for help from the Muslims of the North of Africa in their civil war with King Rodrigo.

The Visigothic Kingdom offered Little resistence. In only a few years the Muslim armies, led by Tariq and Musa, conquered nearly all the península. He new name given to this territory was Al-Andalus, and it was initiallyunder the authorithy of the Caliph of Damascus. Its capital was Córdoba.

Most of the Visigothic population accepted their new rulers. The nobility accepted Muslim authority in Exchange for keeping their estates. Only a few mountainous areas in the north remained independent.

THE EMIRATE OF CORDOBA (756 – 929)

There was an upheaval in the Muslim world in the middle of the 8 th century when the Umayyad dynasty was replaced by theAbbasids. However, an Umayyad prince managed to escape from Damascus and reach the Iberian Peninsula. Under the name Abd al – Rahman I, he founded an independent Emirate in Cordoba in 756. He accepted the religious authority of the Abbasid caliphs, but not their political authority.

Initially, the authority of the Emir was not very great brcause the aristocracy retained its power and led frequent rebellions. But the Emirate gradually laid the foundations for a new state on the península.

THE CALIPHATE OF CORDOBA (929 – 1031)

Abd al – Rahman III declared Al-Andalus a Caliphate in 929. The Caliphs of Cordoba were absolute rulers who held both political and religious authority. They base their power on ministers (viziers), provincial governors (walis) and judges (cadis).

There was a period of great cultural and economic achievement under the Caliphate. Its capital had a larger population than any other city in Europe. Abd al – Rahman III strengthened the autority of the Caliph by winning victories against Christian territories in the north and suppressing internal rebellions.

However, by the late 10 th century, the Caliphate was weakened as provincial governors achieved greater autonomy. The Caliph himself bécame a less influential figure. For example, the Young Hisham II was appointed Caliph in 976, but the Grand Vizier Al-Mansur held the real power.

Al-Mansur promoted rule from cordoba, but many provinces tried to strengthen their own regional autonomy. After Al-Mansur’s death, there was a period of conflicto which culminated in the break-up of the Caliphate.

THE TAIFA KINGDOMS (1031- 1086)

Many small Muslim kingdoms called Taifas were formed after the end of the Caliphate. Zaragoza, Toledo, Badajoz, Sevilla, Denia, and Valencia were among the most important.

The Taifa kingdoms were still prosperous and culturally advanced. But they were much weaker and smaller than the Caliphate had been. Consequently, the Christian were able to make them pay taxes, or parias, in return for peace.

2. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN AL-ANDALUS

ECONOMY ACTIVITY

The Muslims acieved a high level of economic development in agricultura, craftsmanship and trade. Al- Andalus was part of the economy of the Muslim world, but there were also many exchanges with Christian Europe.

• In agriculture, the use of water was carefully regulated through irrigation Canals and mills. Many crops, such as rice, cotton and citrus fruits, were imported from Asia. Cereals, vines and olives were still grown as essential crops.
• Crafts were carried out in cities and reached a very high level. Leather, iron, pottery and glass craftsmanship were all of such high quality that they bécame famous throughout the Mediterranean.
• Trade was very active because the Muslims were the intermediaries between Est and West. They also brought in slaves. In Exchange Al-Andalus exported craft and agricultural products.

Commercial activity was favoured by the use of a single currency in the Muslim world, the gold dinar and the silver dirham. As in the rest of the Islamic world, cities were centres of economic activity. Cordoba, Sevilla, Toledo, Valencia and Zaragoza were among the greatest European cities.

CORDOBA, THE MOST IMPORTANT CITY IN EUROPE

Cordoba was the greatest city of Al-Andalus. It bécame the capital of the Emirate and later the Caliphate and had a population of 100,000. (At that time other European cities were very much smaller). Its location on he River Guadalquivir allowed it to control both north –south and east –west routes, while its craftsmen made fine leather and Wood products. The Great Mosque, and the Palace of Medina Azahara in the west, demonstrated the city’s splendour.

THE SOCIETY OF AL-ANDALUS

The Muslims were tolerant of the rest of the population so only small groups of Christians decided to leave their lands. The society of Al-Andalus was deiverse.

The conquerors were the most powerful group, but had different positions according to ethnic criteria.

• The Arabs came from the East and led the conquest of the Peninsula. They were an aristocracy holding political power and formed a wealthy, landowning elite.
• The Berbers from North Africa had also participated in the conquest, bu they received less fertile lands and held Little power. As a result, they often participated in rebellions.

The local population was organised according to religious criteria.

• Most of the population were Muladis. These were former Christians who converted to Islam and adopted the language and customs of the conquerors.
• Non-Muslims, both Christian sor Jews, practised their religion in return for paying tribute.
• The Christians living in Muslim territory were called Mozarabs. This population gradually declined because some Mozarabs converted to Islam while others emigrated to the Christian Kingdoms after the 9 h century.
• The Jews were involved in trade, finance, craft and cultural activities. Consequently, they were very influential. They mainly lived in Jewish quarters in cities and practised their religion in synagogues.

3. THE CULTURE OF AL-ANDALUS

THE CULTURAL LEGACY OF AL-ANDALUS

The cultural and intelectual achievements of Al-Andalus wre very impresive, especially under the Caliphate. It absorbed the influence of other important Islamic centres such as Baghdad and Damascus, but this was enriched by local contributions.

• In mathematics, the Muslims introced algebra and Arabic numbers. They were experts in the fields of medicine and astronomy. Their writers also created some very fine poetry.
• In philosophy, the Muslims Averroes revived  the study of Aristotle, which led in his rediscovery by Medieval Christian philosophers. The Jewish philosopher and doctor Maimonides was another outstanding intelectual.

ARCHITECTURE

Architecture was an especially important art form because painting and sculpture were mainly used to decórate buildings.

• The Muslims used por building materials such as bricks and plaster.They sometimes reused Stone and marble from Roman and Visigothic buildings.
• Fine decoration covered these materials. As reprentations of the human figure were not allowed they used decorative geometric or plant patterns. They also adorned buildings with very fine writing, or calligraphy, using textsfrom the Quran.
• The Muslim used both the horseshoe arch and the highly elaborate multifoil arch. Most ceilings wre flat and were covered by Wood, but there were also luxuriously decorated domes.
• The interiors of buildings were carefully designed. Screens were used to create Sharp contrasts between light and shade. Water was also an important part of interior design, which incorporated foutains and pools.

THE EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURE

Many fine buildings were constructed during the early centuries of Al-Andalus.

Under the Emirate and the Caliphate, he most important building was the Great Mosque of Cordoba, which was begun by Abd al-Rahman I, and continued by his successors. Another outstanding building was the Medina Azahara, which was built in the 10 th century by Abd al Rahman III.

Under the taifas, arches were consructed in a variety of styles. He kings built many fine palaces and fortresses. Notable examples were the 11 th century Palace of Aljafería in Zaragoza and the Alcazaba fortress in Malaga.

THE GREAT MOSQUE OF CORDOBA

In 784, Abd al-Rahman I began the construction of a great mosque in Cordoba on the site of an earlier Visigothic church. Work on the mosque continued foro ver two centuries under Abd al –Rahman’s successors.

The great haram, or prayer hall, was separated into eleven parts by columns made of marble and granite taken from the ruins of earlier Roman buildings. Its doublé arches consisted of a lower horsehoe arch and a higher semicircular arch. Their red and White patterns were similar to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

Abd al-Rahman III expanded the sahn, or courtyard, and built a new minareT. IN 961 Al-Hakam enlarged the bulding and decorated the walls with mosaics from Byzantium.

Al- Mansur made the mosque even larger, and built pathways that connected it to the Caliph’s palace. As the new parts had to be built away from the River Guadalquivir, the mihrab was no longer in the middle of the wall, or quibla, facing Mecca.

After the conquest of Cordoba by the Christians, the Great Mosque bécame a church. In the 16 th century, part of the original interior was desroyed to make way for a new Renaissance catedral.

        4. THE CHRISTIANS KINGDOMS IN THE WEST

The Muslim conquest was not complete in all patrs of the Iberian Peninsula. Hispano – Visigothd maintained their Independence in the Cantabrian Mountains and in the Pyrenees. Over ime, Christian territories turned into Kingdoms and Little by Little took over areas of Al-Andalus. This process was called the Reconquest.

THE KINGDOM OF ASTURIAS

Asturias was the earliest Christian Kingdom to be created on the península following the Muslim conquests. This was where the Asturian noble Pelayo defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Covadonga (722). This great victory (according to the Christian chronicles) was perhaps only a minor ambush (according to Muslim sources). But whatever the actual events, it bécame an important symbol of the Christian reconquest.

Pelayo’s successors consolidated their control over the Cantabrian región. Alfonso I expanded his territory by taking advantage of conflicts between the Muslims and led raids into the Duero valley. Alfonso II set up his court in Oviedo and extended his rule into Glicia and the north of León and Castilla.

THE KINGDOM OF LEÓN

In he second half of the 9 th century, Alfonso III expanded his kingdom into the territories north of the river Duero. This advance was assisted by the weakness of the Caliphate of Córdoba and the resettlment of the región by Mozarabs.

In the 10 th century, king Garcia I transferred the Royal court to León and the territory bécame known as the Kingdom of León. The survival of this kingdom was guaranteed by the victory of Ramiro II over the Muslims at the Battle of Simancas (939), which confirmed its frontier along the Duero.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF CASTILLA

The County of Castilla eerged along the Eastern frontier of the kingdom of León, where there were frequent Muslim attacks. Many castles were built to defend the area against these attacks, and the castles gave their name to the región.

In the 10 th century, the counts of Castilla increased their reional authoriy. Count Fernán González nited several counties under his rule and left them to his heirs. Later this County paid allegiance to the kingdom of Navarra. But when king Sancho IIIof Navarra died in 1035, one of his sons Fernando I inherited Castilla, and declared himself king.

CHRISTIAN RESETTLEMENT

The area controlled by the Cristians north of the river Duero was depopulated, and had few resources. It required a process of resettlement, which was carried out in two ways:

• Land was granted to sttlers in abandoned borde rareas. This typ of land grant was called the aprisio.
• The kings granted charters (or fueros) to the new towns , which gave hem special privileges and local laws.
• These developments led to the creation of a class of free peasant farmers and assited the growth of economic activity in the región. They also reduced overopulation in the territories north of the cantabrian chain.

5. THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOMS IN THE EAST

    As Asturias and León emerged  in he north-west of the peninsula, ther were other Christian regions that fought for their Independence from the Muslims and Franks.

THE KINGDOM OF NAVARRA

In the western Pyrenees, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at the Battle of Roncesvalles in 778. In the 9 th century Iñigo Arista, Count of Pamplona were proclaimed kings of Navarra, and brought the County of Aragon into their kingdom.

The Jimena Dynasty took power in Navarra in the 10 th century, and extended their influence to the resent-day provinces of Alava and La Rioja. The kingdom reached its greatest territorial expansión under Sancho III the Great, (1000 -1035), who unifed the Kingdoms of Navarra, Aragón and Castilla. At the end of his reign, he divided his kingdom between his sons.

THE KINGDOM OF ARAGÓN

The central part of the Pyrenees was divided into three counties under Frankish control:Sobrarbe, Ribagorza and Aragón.

In Aragón, the family of Count Aznar Galindo achived Independence from the Franks and established their capital at Jaca. This County later fell under the control of the kingdom of Pamplona.

But on the death of Sacho III, his son Ramiro I inherited Aragon  and bécame its first king. The two other Counties bécame part of this kingdom.

THE SPANISH MARCH AND THE CATALAN COUNTIES

The Frankish kings controlled territories south of the Pyrenees in order to establish a border zone which would be a barrier against Muslim attacks. These territories in the Eastern pyrenees were called the Spanish March. In 785 the Franks conquered the County of Girona, followed by the County of Barcelon in 801. The County of Barcelona bécame the most important county in the Spanish March.

From the 9 th century, the Catalan Counts took advantage of the weakening of the Carolingin  Emire to increase their own uthority. In the late 9 th century, Count Wifredo el Velloso added the County of Besalú, Ampurias, Cerdaña, Urgel and Pallars to his territory.

In the 10 th century, the Count of Barcelona, Borrel II refused to swear allegiance to the Frankish kings. He achieved full Independence and made the County of Barcelona the most important entity in the north-east of the península.